Landmark360 Blog

Psychoeducational and Neuropsychological Evaluations Explained

Tue, 16 Jun 2026 04:00:00 +0000

Psychoeducational vs. Neuropsychological Evaluations Explained:

Understanding the Similarities, Differences, and When Each May Be Helpful

By Brian Willoughby, Ph.D., and Nathan Doty, Ph.D.; Achieve New England

In Brief

Whether you’re a teacher designing individualized learning plans or a parent exploring learning support for the first time, understanding the unique insights each assessment model provides is essential for targeted instruction. This guide previews the core concepts of both assessment models to inform educational planning and professional practice:

The Core Differences: Psychoeducational evaluations focus on school performance, while neuropsychological evaluations look deeper at underlying brain and emotional processes.
Areas of Overlap: These two testing models are not opposites; they share a lot of the same testing methods.
When to Choose Which: A psychoeducational test is best for straightforward academic struggles, while a neuropsychological test is better for complex, overlapping challenges.
A Framework for Families: Shift the focus from "which test is better" to "what specific questions need to be answered" for the student.

Few decisions can feel more confusing for parents than being told their child may need an evaluation, only to find there are multiple types of evaluations, each with unfamiliar names and seemingly overlapping purposes. One of the most common questions families ask is: What is the difference between a psychoeducational evaluation and a neuropsychological evaluation, and how do I know which one my child needs?

At first glance, these terms can be confusing, especially because the evaluations often overlap in important ways. In some settings, the distinction between the two is presented too rigidly, as though they were entirely separate processes or as though one type of evaluation were inherently more comprehensive or more valuable than the other. In reality, the picture is much more nuanced.

Both psychoeducational and neuropsychological evaluations can provide meaningful, high-quality information about how a student learns and functions in daily life. Both are designed to identify strengths and weaknesses, clarify areas of need, and generate recommendations to support a student’s academic and emotional development. In practice, there is often substantial overlap between the two approaches, and the usefulness of any evaluation depends not simply on its title but on the referral, the questions being asked, the evaluator's experience and training, and the depth of the assessment itself.

For families trying to determine which type of evaluation may be most appropriate, it can be helpful to think less in terms of “Which evaluation is better?” and more in terms of “What questions are we trying to answer?”

The Psychoeducational Evaluation

What is it?

A psychoeducational evaluation is primarily designed to understand a student’s academic functioning and educational needs. These evaluations are commonly completed by school psychologists, licensed clinical psychologists, or educational specialists working in school systems or private practice settings. Psychoeducational evaluations are often closely tied to educational planning and are frequently used to determine eligibility for school-based services, accommodations, or specialized instruction.

What does it measure?

Most psychoeducational evaluations include formal assessment of cognitive or intellectual abilities, often referred to as intelligence (IQ) testing, alongside measures of academic achievement in areas such as reading, writing, mathematics, and oral language. The evaluation typically examines whether a student’s academic performance is consistent with expectations given their overall cognitive abilities, grade level, developmental history, and educational exposure. In many cases, psychoeducational evaluations also incorporate behavioral questionnaires, observations, and review of school records to better understand classroom functioning and learning patterns.

Historically, psychoeducational evaluations were often conceptualized as tools for identifying learning disabilities by comparing intellectual ability and academic achievement. Although modern identification models have evolved beyond strict discrepancy approaches, psychoeducational evaluations continue to play a central role in identifying learning disorders, documenting educational needs, and informing school-based intervention planning.

How is it used?

One of the greatest strengths of a psychoeducational evaluation is its direct relevance to educational programming. These evaluations are particularly useful when concerns center primarily on academic performance, such as difficulties with reading fluency, reading comprehension, written expression, mathematics, or classroom learning more broadly. They are also frequently appropriate when families or schools seek updated documentation for accommodations, specialized instruction, standardized testing supports, or eligibility determinations.

Importantly, psychoeducational evaluations can vary considerably in depth and scope. Some are relatively targeted and focused specifically on academic concerns, while others are more comprehensive and incorporate broader cognitive, behavioral, and emotional assessment measures. Experienced school psychologists and educational evaluators can provide sophisticated and clinically thoughtful psychoeducational evaluations that yield highly actionable recommendations for schools and families alike.

The Neuropsychological Evaluation

What is it?

A neuropsychological evaluation also seeks to understand how a student learns, but it typically places greater emphasis on the underlying cognitive, developmental, attentional, emotional, and regulatory processes that contribute to learning and day-to-day functioning. These evaluations are generally completed by licensed clinical psychologists with specialized training in neuropsychology, though some school psychologists may also have advanced training in neuropsychological assessment.

What does it measure?

Like psychoeducational evaluations, neuropsychological evaluations usually include measures of intellectual functioning and academic achievement. In school-age children, academic testing is almost always incorporated because academic skills remain central to functional outcomes. However, neuropsychological evaluations often extend further by examining a broader range of neurocognitive processes that may influence learning, behavior, emotional regulation, and adaptive functioning.

Depending on the referral concerns, a neuropsychological evaluation may assess areas such as attention, executive functioning, working memory, language processing, processing speed, visual-spatial reasoning, visual-motor integration, learning and memory, social cognition, emotional functioning, and behavioral regulation. The goal is not simply to document whether a student is struggling academically, but to better understand the mechanisms contributing to those struggles and how various cognitive and emotional systems interact.

For example, two students may both present with weak reading comprehension, yet the underlying reasons for those difficulties may differ substantially.

One student may have a primary language-based learning disability affecting decoding and comprehension.
Another may have attentional weaknesses that interfere with sustained focus and information retention.
A third may experience anxiety that disrupts processing efficiency during reading tasks, while another may have executive functioning weaknesses affecting organization and inferencing.

In some students, multiple factors coexist simultaneously. A neuropsychological evaluation seeks to understand this broader profile to generate a more individualized conceptualization and intervention plan.

How is it used?

Neuropsychological evaluations are often especially helpful when a student’s presentation is complex, when prior interventions have not produced expected progress, or when there are questions involving differential diagnosis. These evaluations may help clarify whether academic difficulties are occurring in isolation or whether they are associated with conditions such as ADHD, anxiety disorders, language disorders, autism spectrum disorder, developmental weaknesses, emotional challenges, or broader executive functioning difficulties.

At the same time, it is important not to overstate the distinction between psychoeducational and neuropsychological assessment. Many psychoeducational evaluations already incorporate elements traditionally associated with neuropsychology, including behavioral rating scales, executive functioning measures, and emotional assessment tools. Similarly, some neuropsychological evaluations may focus more narrowly depending on the referral question. In practice, there is often far more overlap between the two approaches than many families initially realize.

Areas of Significant Overlap

One of the most important points for families to understand is that psychoeducational and neuropsychological evaluations are not opposing models of assessment. Rather, they exist along a continuum, with considerable shared methodology and purpose.

Both evaluations may include:

Cognitive and intellectual assessment
Academic achievement testing
Review of developmental and educational history
Behavioral questionnaires
Assessment of attention and executive functioning
Emotional and social-emotional screening
Recommendations for school supports and interventions

Additionally, the quality of an evaluation is often influenced more by the clinician’s experience, training, thoroughness, and ability to synthesize findings than by the specific label attached to the evaluation. A thoughtful, comprehensive psychoeducational evaluation can be extraordinarily informative. Likewise, a neuropsychological evaluation is most valuable when it meaningfully answers referral questions and translates findings into practical recommendations that improve a student’s functioning in real-world settings.

When a Psychoeducational Evaluation May Be Most Appropriate

A psychoeducational evaluation may be an excellent fit when concerns are primarily academic and relatively straightforward. For example, a student who is struggling with reading, writing, or mathematics but otherwise appears to be functioning well emotionally, socially, and behaviorally may benefit greatly from a psychoeducational evaluation focused on academic learning patterns and educational intervention planning.

Similarly, psychoeducational evaluations are often appropriate when schools or testing agencies require updated documentation for accommodations such as extended time, reduced distraction environments, assistive technology, or specialized instructional supports. Students with previously identified learning disabilities may also undergo psychoeducational reevaluations to monitor progress over time and update educational programming. In many cases, a psychoeducational evaluation provides exactly the information needed to support educational planning and school-based intervention.

When a Neuropsychological Evaluation May Be Most Helpful

A neuropsychological evaluation may be particularly useful when concerns extend beyond academics alone or when the reasons for a student’s difficulties remain unclear. These evaluations are often beneficial when students present with complicated or overlapping profiles involving attention, executive functioning, emotional regulation, language processing, social communication, developmental history, or behavioral functioning.

Families may also pursue neuropsychological evaluations when a student is not making expected progress despite interventions, when there are discrepancies across settings, or when previous evaluations have not fully explained the student’s profile. In some situations, a more comprehensive neuropsychological framework can help clarify how multiple factors interact and provide more nuanced recommendations regarding intervention intensity, educational placement, therapeutic supports, or long-term planning. For some students, the added breadth of neuropsychological assessment can help families and schools move beyond simply identifying a problem to understanding how to intervene more effectively.

A Practical Framework for Families

One practical way to conceptualize the distinction is that psychoeducational evaluations often focus more directly on academic achievement, educational eligibility, and school-based intervention planning, whereas neuropsychological evaluations tend to place greater emphasis on understanding the broader cognitive, developmental, attentional, and emotional processes that contribute to a student’s functioning.

That said, these distinctions are not absolute. A highly comprehensive psychoeducational evaluation may closely resemble a neuropsychological evaluation in many respects, while some neuropsychological evaluations may focus primarily on academic and attentional concerns. The boundaries between the two are often more fluid than families expect. Ultimately, the most important consideration is whether the evaluation meaningfully answers the questions that brought the student in for assessment in the first place.

Concluding Thoughts

Choosing between a psychoeducational and neuropsychological evaluation is rarely about selecting the “better” option. Rather, it is about determining which type of evaluation is most likely to provide useful, actionable information for a particular student at a particular point in time.

For some students, a psychoeducational evaluation offers precisely the level of assessment needed to support educational planning and accommodations. For others, particularly those with more complex, layered, or diagnostically unclear presentations, a neuropsychological evaluation may provide a broader understanding of how cognitive, emotional, attentional, developmental, and academic factors interact. In either case, the goal remains the same: developing a clearer understanding of the student to provide meaningful supports, appropriate interventions, and a pathway toward greater confidence and success in school and beyond.

About the Author

About Dr. Doty

Dr. Doty is a licensed child psychologist with expertise in the assessment of neurological, developmental, learning, and emotional difficulties from early childhood through young adulthood. His areas of specialty include learning disorders, ADHD, autism spectrum disorders, mood/anxiety disorders, and acquired brain injury.

Dr. Doty received a bachelor’s degree from Stanford University before earning a doctorate in Child and Family Clinical Psychology at the University of Miami. He completed his pre-doctoral internship at The Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, followed by a postdoctoral fellowship in neuropsychology at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School.

Before co-founding Achieve New England in 2016, he served as a staff psychologist and research coordinator within the Learning and Emotional Assessment Program at Massachusetts General Hospital (LEAP), providing teaching and clinical supervision through his joint appointment at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Doty’s work has been published in prominent scientific journals and books. He currently serves on the Branch Council Executive Committee for the International Dyslexia Association.

About Dr. Willoughby

Dr. Willoughby is a licensed child clinical psychologist specializing in neuropsychological, educational, and developmental evaluations. His areas of expertise include learning disabilities, attention and executive functioning concerns, autism spectrum disorders, and other neurodevelopmental conditions, as well as anxiety and mood disorders.

Dr. Willoughby is co-founder and co-director of Achieve New England. Previously, he was a faculty member in the Department of Psychiatry at the Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School. Dr. Willoughby completed his graduate work in the Child and Family Clinical Psychology Program at the University of Miami, and his pre-doctoral internship and fellowship in child clinical psychology at the Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School.

Dr. Willoughby is also an established researcher, author, and speaker in the fields of child and family psychology. His work has been published in some of the nation’s top psychology journals, and he speaks frequently at national and international conferences. He is the associate editor of The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intellectual and Developmental Disorders and the co-author of Bright Kids Who Can’t Keep Up, a book for parents.

Social Development of Today’s Seniors

Wed, 01 Apr 2026 04:00:00 +0000

By Robb Genetelli, Dean of Students, Landmark High School

Reflections from the Road: COVID, Convenience, and the Social Development of Today’s Seniors

I am writing this after returning from five days in Disney World with sixty high school seniors. Anyone who has ever traveled with teenagers knows that these trips are equal parts logistics, laughter, exhaustion, and the occasional teachable moment. Airports, buses, crowded parks, long food lines, lost phones, misplaced backpacks, and late-night conversations have a way of revealing who students really are when school structures fall away.

And this group revealed something worth reflecting on.

Teens Struggling With Basic Communication

Watching them move through the parks, interact with hotel staff, order food, navigate crowds, and negotiate plans with one another, I was struck by how many small social tasks required a bit of coaching. Not in a concerning way, but in a noticeable one. Moments that previous classes seemed to handle instinctively now required a pause.

A student hesitated before approaching a counter to ask a question. Another seemed unsure how to politely step into a conversation with a staff member. A group struggled briefly to clarify a food order or navigate a crowded space. These were not failures. They were simply moments of uncertainty in situations that once served as routine practice.

These students are capable, thoughtful, and kind young adults. But they are also members of a generation whose middle school years, sixth, seventh, and part of eighth grade, unfolded during the most socially restrictive period most of us have experienced.

And that disruption matters.

Practice Makes Permanent

Middle school is a critical time for developing the subtle, unwritten rules of social interaction. It is when adolescents begin to learn how to read a room, approach adults, navigate unfamiliar situations, and build the confidence to engage with the world around them. These skills are not taught through formal instruction. They are developed through repetition, through small, everyday interactions.

Ordering food at a counter. Asking for help in a store. Making small talk while waiting in line. Clarifying a mistake. These moments seem insignificant, but they are foundational.

For many of today’s high school seniors, those opportunities simply disappeared.

When the world began to reopen, another shift had already taken hold. Technology had stepped in to fill the gap. Mobile ordering, app-based services, and digital communication made it possible to move through daily life with minimal direct interaction. What began as a necessary adaptation became a lasting habit.

Even in a place like Disney World, designed for shared human experience, much of the day can now be navigated through a screen. Food is ordered on an app. Wait times are tracked digitally. Plans are adjusted without ever speaking to another person.

The result is subtle but significant. Many of the small, low-stakes interactions that once helped young people build social confidence have been reduced or removed altogether.

What I witnessed on the trip, however, was not a deficit; it was an opportunity.

This is an important reminder that young people are remarkably resilient. When given the chance, they learn quickly.

Small Steps. Big Success.

Once students were nudged into these situations, they adapted quickly. A student who hesitated to order food early in the trip became the spokesperson for their group by the end. Another who seemed unsure about approaching a staff member later helped a peer resolve an issue at the hotel desk. Groups began to negotiate plans more fluidly, demonstrating increasing confidence and independence.

This is an important reminder that young people are remarkably resilient. When given the chance, they learn quickly.

The challenge before us is not to critique this generation, but to recognize where development was interrupted and to intentionally create opportunities to rebuild those skills.

Social confidence, like any skill, develops through practice. It grows when students are encouraged to step forward, to engage, to navigate discomfort, and to manage small, real-world interactions on their own.

For schools and families, this work is both simple and essential. Encourage students to order their own meals. Ask them to check themselves in at appointments. Prompt them to seek help directly rather than relying on others. Support them in handling small mistakes and misunderstandings independently.

These moments are not insignificant. They are the building blocks of independence.

What I saw in Disney was not a generation lacking social skills, but one that has had fewer opportunities to practice them. The capacity is there. The willingness is there. What is needed is intentional exposure and encouragement.

On our final night, I watched groups of students gather outside the hotel, talking, laughing, making plans for the morning. No phones in sight. Just teenagers being together, navigating conversation, and enjoying one another’s company.

It was a simple moment, but an important one.

It reminded me that, at their core, young people still learn the same way they always have, through experience, through interaction, and through the freedom to try, stumble, and grow.

Our role is not to worry that they have fallen behind, but to ensure they are given every opportunity to move forward.

And they will.

About the Author

Robb Genetelli has been the Dean of Students at Landmark High School since 1996. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in Legal Studies and a Master’s degree in Education with a focus on Student Development, both from the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Robb and his wife, Allison, have raised their two children on the Landmark campus, where they continue to reside. He served on the board of the Small Boarding Schools Association for a decade, including six years as president. In 2018, he received the Gorman Award for his outstanding contribution to the benefit and advancement of small boarding schools. In addition to his administrative responsibilities, Robb co-teaches a senior study skills class called Character and Leadership, which emphasizes values, reflection, and personal growth. Beyond Landmark, he travels the country speaking on topics related to learning disabilities, adolescent development, and the broader landscape of education. In his free time, he enjoys reading as well as boating and hiking with his family in New Hampshire.

An Open Letter to the Dyslexic Youth of America

Wed, 18 Mar 2026 04:00:00 +0000

I need you to hear something.

Not first as a school administrator or a teacher—but as someone who learns the way you do, who took far too long to see in myself what I now see clearly in you.

So let me say it plainly: The world needs you. Exactly as you are.

You can be president. A doctor, lawyer, teacher, plumber, actor, scientist, poet, entrepreneur. Anything. Not in spite of how your brain works—because of it.

Now the harder truth.

The system was not built for you. It was built for a different kind of learner—and for too long, anyone who didn't fit that mold was labeled, sorted, and set aside.

Some of you have been tested, pulled out of class, talked about rather than talked to.
Some of you have had teachers who tried their best and still missed you.
Some of you have had adults who were supposed to help and left you feeling smaller instead.
Some of you worked twice as hard to feel half as capable.

This is not a reflection of your potential.

A learning difference is a disability when no one around you understands it.

But here is what I know.

Every time you flip on a light, start a car, or pick up your phone, you are living inside the imagination of someone who learned exactly like you. The world didn't make room for them either. They built it anyway.

You come from that line.

The way your brain hunts for patterns, thinks in pictures and systems, asks why when others just memorize what—those are not flaws. They are features. Remarkable, world-changing features.

Difficulty is not evidence that you don't belong. It is evidence that the world hasn't caught up to you yet.

You will lead, create, invent, heal, build, and inspire.
Not despite the way you learn.
Because of it.
And one day, the world will catch up to you.

With respect and admiration,
Josh Clark
Dyslexic Dad
Dyslexic Learner
Head of School, Landmark School,
Past Board Chair, International Dyslexia Association

About the Author

Josh Clark is the current head of Landmark School, located in Beverly, Massachusetts. A committed humanitarian, he champions the cause of neurodiversity in education and promotes the science of reading as a vehicle for education reform and social good. Past Board Chair of International Dyslexia Association, currently serves on the National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS), and is an Expert Contributor to the global nonprofits Made By Dyslexia and Microsoft Education. He also co-founded the Association of LD Schools (ALDS) and serves on its board. Josh has presented about the importance of recognizing and supporting students with dyslexia and other language-based learning disabilities (LBLD) all over the world. Josh is a lifelong educator. He began his career in education at Lausanne Collegiate School, an International Baccalaureate World School in Memphis, Tennessee, where he served as assistant head of the Middle School and a middle and high school English teacher for seven years. Prior to his current position at Landmark School, Josh served as the head of two different schools that serve students with dyslexia: the Bodine School in Memphis, Tennessee and The Schenck School in Atlanta, Georgia.

“Timing Matters”: Landmark School at the intersection of research, instruction, and reflection.

Wed, 11 Feb 2026 05:00:00 +0000

Landmark School has long relied on research studies to inform our approach to educating students with language-based learning disabilities. Now, we've conducted a study in our own community with the goal of better understanding reading trajectories for Landmark students. We leveraged 10 years of school-based data and collaborated with Dr. Joanna Christodoulou's Lab (called Brain, Education, and Mind, or BEAM, Lab) at the MGH Institute of Health Professions to offer new insights directly about Landmark students that may also be informative more broadly for specialized schools and students with reading challenges in different settings.

In the fall of 2025, Landmark School's collaborative project with the BEAM Lab was published. The research uniquely highlights contexts related to 'when,' or which windows of time we use to look at reading progress, specifically in students with reading difficulties. Prior research has mostly focused on reading development in the general population, while this work uniquely emphasizes trajectories and intervention impacts over time for students with reading disabilities. The publication addresses how reading skills change over time for students with reading challenges. Next, the authors discuss what we know about reading progress after interventions end, including the extent to which gains 'fade-out.' Third, the article discusses how reading progress is impacted by extended pauses in formal schooling, such as during the summer vacation or the pandemic shutdown.

The unique contribution from Landmark School was a self-study of reading progress among our students. The authors examined the learning trajectories of students at Landmark School, thinking about how evidence-based, intensive, and child-centered support can narrow achievement gaps. The data from Landmark School showed impressive growth over elementary school through high school years, with matched or faster growth among Landmark students compared to a prototypically average norm sample.

Let’s dig into highlights from the article:

Timing and Duration

The timing and duration of educational experiences is a critical lens for interpreting reading progress. It determines when skills are acquired, practiced, and retained versus when they may decline due to interrupted instruction. For students with reading disabilities, understanding these time-based frameworks is essential for distinguishing between expected and unexpected shifts in students' performance.

Learning Trajectories

Learning trajectories provide a foundation for understanding whether a student’s progress aligns with expectations for their specific learning profile.

The trajectories revealed robust reading progress for students at Landmark School, which specializes in serving students with language-based learning disabilities. Notably, the data showed that Landmark School achieved growth in both real-word and pseudo-word reading that matched or exceeded rates of prototypically average norm sample students.

Effects of Disruptions

Summer breaks are a significant factor to consider for reading progress. The research suggests that accumulated summer lag—the regression or slowing of growth during the 8-12 weeks of summer—appears to drive a major portion of the achievement gap for students receiving special education services. But this can also inform how we design summer reading opportunities for students.

The COVID-19 pandemic had a disproportionately negative impact on students with reading disabilities compared to readers without learning challenges.

Best Timing Is Now

Grade-level timing and growth are generally non-linear, meaning that word reading scores increase more during elementary school than high school. It is never too late to improve reading skills—the best time to intervene is early elementary school, and the next best time is now.

Retention

While many intervention effects tend to "fade out" over time, readers identified as at-risk or disabled actually show greater retention of intervention gains compared to their typical-reading peers. This difference in retention and long-term progress can be influenced by several factors within the student’s “intervention ecosystem,” including the timing of support, the nature of the instruction, and the consistency of reinforcement.

Long-term Outcomes

For students with dyslexia, the specific pattern of reading growth from first to fifth grade is a stronger predictor of adult reading comprehension than it is for typical readers. Interestingly, students with dyslexia show more variation in their reading progress during these early years than their typical-reading peers, making this developmental window essential for forecasting long-term outcomes.

Landmark School is beyond grateful for its collaboration with both Dr. Christodoulou and Dr. Mesite and the contributions this work has made to the field of reading instruction. Specifically, we are indebted to the works’ contributions to our understanding of the relationship between time and intervention on our students’ abilities to reach their academic potential. This school-researcher partnership has been another example of how Landmark School is at the frontier of using best evidence, and also creating it.

Read the full paper here.

Christodoulou, J.A., Mesite, L. and Hickey, J.A. (2025), Timing Matters: Leveraging Temporal Contexts for Interpreting Reading Progress. Mind, Brain, and Education. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.70020

About the Author

Adam Hickey is currently the Landmark School research coordinator and a Landmark Outreach lead faculty member. Previously, Adam taught American literature in addition to his administrative role as an academic advisor at Landmark High School. Adam is a graduate of the Harvard Graduate School of Education where he studied language and literacy development. While studying at Harvard, he taught at the Maria L. Baldwin School in Cambridge as a reading specialist and explored the influence of early intervention on struggling readers at the elementary level. He also holds an M.S. Ed. in education from Simmons University. Adam is a licensed reading specialist and moderate special needs educator.

The Relationship Between Social Pragmatic Communication and Executive Function

Mon, 12 Jan 2026 05:00:00 +0000

Helping Kids “Read the Room”:
The Relationship Between Social Communication and Executive Function

By Linda Gross, updated from older articles with contributions from Ruth Bossler, M.S., CCC-SLP

Some parents may observe their children struggling not only with academic tasks like managing homework and meeting deadlines but also with navigating complex social situations. Research from the fields of speech-language pathology and psychology strongly supports a direct link between weaknesses in Executive Functioning (EF) and Social Communication (SC) Skills. Understanding this connection can help parents and educators provide more targeted support. Executive Function refers to the cognitive processes that enable an individual to engage in purposeful, organized, strategic, self-regulated, and goal-directed behavior. While we often think of EF for schoolwork (like planning a long-term project), these same skills are vital for social interactions.

The Hidden Link Between Executive Function and Social Skills

Executive function components such as cognitive flexibility, working memory, and emotional regulation help children have successful social interactions. When these skills don’t come easily, kids may miss the subtle cues that take place during conversational exchanges.

Flexible Thinking (Cognitive Flexibility) allows someone to shift thinking or think about something differently. Inflexible thinkers may get stuck and find it difficult to mentally shift gears, perhaps perseverating on an idea or topic. They are often described as “black and white” thinkers, have poor predicting skills, and may not consider previous experiences. Rigid thinking can make changes in expectations or routines quite challenging.
Working Memory allows children to keep track of what’s being said and respond in ways that make sense. Otherwise, conversations can derail.
Self-regulation helps kids manage emotions and impulses. If these are not managed, frustration or anxiety may show up as outbursts, withdrawal, or social missteps.

In other words, executive function is the behind-the-scenes manager of successful social communication.

Situational Awareness: Reading the Room

Speech-language pathologists Sarah Ward and Kristen Jacobsen, founders of Cognitive Connections, describe a skill called situational awareness—essentially, the ability to “read the room.” Children with strong situational awareness notice what’s happening around them and adjust their behavior accordingly.

Ward and Jacobsen use the acronym STOP to help kids tune in to the key features of any setting:

Space – Where am I?
Time – What’s happening right now?
Objects – What’s being used or done?
People – Who’s here, and what are they doing or feeling?

When kids learn to pause and think through these questions, they begin to make sense of social expectations that once felt confusing.

Michelle Garcia Winner, creator of the Social Thinking® framework, adds another helpful idea: social executive functioning. She reminds us that building and maintaining friendships involves the same EF processes as completing a complex school project—planning, sequencing, remembering details, and adjusting to feedback.

Why Some Kids Struggle

Some children with language-based learning disabilities (LBLD), ADHD, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have extra difficulty integrating all this information. They might focus on irrelevant details (for example, what someone is wearing) rather than the “big picture” of a situation. This is sometimes called weak central coherence—a tendency to miss the forest for the trees.

Others struggle with theory of mind, or understanding that others have their own thoughts, feelings, and perspectives. Without this awareness, social misunderstandings can multiply quickly.

The good news: these skills can be taught and strengthened with patience, modeling, and practice.

Helping Kids Build Social and Executive Function Skills

Parents can play a powerful role in helping kids connect the dots between their thoughts, actions, and social outcomes. The goal isn’t perfection—it’s growth, empathy, and awareness.

Try This at Home

Model flexible thinking—When plans change, talk out loud about how you’re adjusting: “We can’t go to the park because it’s raining, so let’s think of something fun to do inside.”
Help your child “read the room.”—Before entering a new situation, ask: “Who’s there? What’s happening? What’s the mood?”
Use “if…then…so” thinking—“If I talk while the teacher’s talking, then classmates might get annoyed—so I’ll wait until it’s my turn.”
Acknowledge feelings and redirect—“I know it’s frustrating when your brother changes the game rules. What could you do instead of yelling?”
Notice social cues together—“Did you see how Mia’s face looked when you grabbed the Sharpie? What do you think that meant?”
Identify and discuss the “gray”—Not everything is black and white: “I know that it’s officially springtime according to the calendar, but it is 30 degrees outside, so we need to wear our winter coats.”
Ask questions—Help the child/student be aware of what you observed and how you perceived their behavior: “When you used that tone of voice, I thought you were being disrespectful or rude. Is that what you meant?”
How this relates to Landmark's Six Teaching Principles™:
- Provide opportunities for success: Start with small and attainable goals
- Use multi-sensory approaches: Pair verbal with visual/nonverbal
- Micro-unit & structure tasks: Break it down with S-T-O-P
- Ensure automatization through practice and review: Use consistent language
- Provide models: Provide scripting
- Include students in the learning process: Work on the plan WITH students:
  - What cues work best for you?
  - How will working on these goals help you in this class?
  - What else could you do in this situation?

Small, consistent conversations like these help children build self-awareness and strengthen both executive and social communication skills over time.

The Big Picture

Executive function and social communication are deeply intertwined. When a child learns to pause, plan, and notice others’ perspectives, they’re not just improving behavior—they’re building the foundation for empathy, friendship, and independence.

By focusing on these strategies intentionally and modeling them at home, parents can give children the tools they need to connect more confidently with the world around them.

References & Resources

Sarah Ward & Kristen Jacobsen, Cognitive Connections (efpractice.com)

Michelle Garcia Winner, Social Thinking® (socialthinking.com)

Happe, F., & Frith, U. (2006). The weak coherence account: Detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders.

McCloskey, G. (2012). Essentials of Executive Function Assessment.

Author

Linda Gross is a certified speech-language pathologist with over 35 years of experience. She is currently a lead faculty member of the Landmark Outreach Program. In this role, Linda serves as an educational consultant and coach, partnering with schools to support language and literacy programming and instructional practices. Additionally, she develops and instructs workshops, webinars, and graduate courses for Landmark Outreach Online and the Summer Institute. Linda has presented seminars at the IDA, LDA, and ASHA national conferences and authored numerous articles on topics related to language-based learning disabilities. Previous positions include Expressive Language Program Director and speech-language consultant at Landmark High School. Linda also brings extensive experience evaluating and treating individuals with a variety of communication and feeding disorders in both clinical and school settings.

Why Cursive Matters

Tue, 16 Dec 2025 05:00:00 +0000

Why Cursive Matters:
A Powerful Tool for Students With Learning Differences

The Benefits of Cursive Writing for Students—Especially Those With Learning Differences

It seems like everyone has an opinion about cursive handwriting. For some, it’s an outdated skill with little relevance. For others, it’s a valuable art form worthy of dedicated instructional time. Wherever you fall on that spectrum, a growing body of research supports the use of cursive.

As a language arts department head and teacher, I’ve worked with hundreds of students, and most find cursive genuinely helpful. Each September, part of our language arts assessment asks students to write both lowercase and uppercase cursive letters. This allows us to determine who’s ready for direct instruction, who needs review, and who can already use cursive independently. At our elementary and middle school campus, we maintain an internal spreadsheet that identifies whether a student is in the instructional phase, the hybrid stage, or the full implementation stage.

Why go to all this trouble?

Increased Writing Efficiency

One of the biggest advantages of cursive—especially for students with language-based learning differences—is the efficiency it provides. Because cursive requires fewer pencil lifts, students can get their ideas onto the page more fluidly.

Writing is a multi-step cognitive process. Thoughts originate in the brain, move through language pathways, become verbal, and then must be translated into written form. Print writing often disrupts this flow with frequent starts and stops. Efficient and automatic handwriting supports cognitive flow. For many students, cursive offers a motor pattern that becomes efficient more quickly.

As Steve Graham notes in his article Want to Improve Children’s Writing? Don’t Neglect Their Handwriting, “The basic goal of handwriting instruction is to help students develop legible writing that can be produced quickly with little conscious attention.”(Graham, 2009-2010, p. 23) For students with learning disabilities, cursive supports this goal.

Reduced Letter Confusion

Cursive also offers visual and kinesthetic benefits. Many letters that are commonly confused in print—such as b/d, w/m, and n/u—have distinct and contrasting forms in cursive. For students who struggle with print reversals, cursive provides an alternative path that minimizes confusion.

In cursive, lowercase letters consistently begin with an upward stroke from the baseline. This predictable starting point reduces the likelihood of reversals and reinforces correct letter formation through muscle memory.

A Confidence Boost

Perhaps most importantly, cursive can be a significant confidence builder for students with language-based learning differences. In my experience, it’s an “easy win” for many learners. With regular practice, they can master cursive skills and incorporate them into their everyday writing.

When students who struggle with print see and feel their success with cursive, they often experience a genuine sense of pride—something that can be rare for children who find writing challenging.

Empowering Students With Dyslexia

Students with dyslexia often face a range of writing-related challenges, including difficulties with efficiency, spelling, letter reversals, and maintaining neatness. Learning and using cursive gives these students a way to take control of some of these difficulties. It offers a practical tool that improves writing while also providing a new skill that can be implemented meaningfully and confidently.

Resource

Graham, S. (2009–2010, Winter). Want to improve children’s writing? Don’t neglect their handwriting. American Educator. Want to Improve Children's Writing? Don't Neglect Their Handwriting by Steve Graham, American Educator Winter 2009-10, A

About the Author

Geoff Russell MSEd. has taught at Landmark School since 2007. He is currently the Chair of the Language Arts Department at Landmark's Elementary•Middle School (EMS) campus and teaches 7th- and 8th-grade classes in addition to directing the EMS Summer Program.

Beyond the Slurs: How Disability Bias Still Shows Up

Tue, 02 Dec 2025 05:00:00 +0000

Many years ago, I wrote a blog post for the Landmark School on the topic of disability discrimination. I talked about blatant discrimination with name-calling. Back then, I watched the Norwich University (NU) football team win 19–9 against Gallaudet University. I overheard words like “dumb,” “stupid,” and “retard” from NU spectators. These words weren't comments on the Gallaudet players’ performance. The derogatory remarks referred to the players’ disabilities; Gallaudet students are deaf or hard of hearing.

A decade later, I wonder: Am I still hearing such discrimination? I sure am. But not often spoken with the same words.

My work—as CEO of EmpowerED Consulting Group, and as the mother of three neurodiverse sons—gives me a unique lens for seeing how disability discrimination persists, often in subtle but powerful ways. Society has more language; even the word neurodiversity has become a household word. We talk about biases and unconscious biases. We know more, but disability discrimination persists.

I offer three recent experiences that have shaped my current thinking about disability discrimination.

Scenario One: Lowered Expectations

It begins, as it often does, in a school meeting. We recently participated in an Individualized Educational Program (IEP) meeting for my client, Tim, a high-performing student with dyslexia and a slower processing speed. We asked for two simple accommodations—extra time and teacher notes. Tim was thriving in his Advanced Placement (AP) classes, yet what followed was a one-hour debate. Several teachers suggested that he drop to lower-level college-preparatory (CP) classes instead.

I sat there, perplexed but not surprised. Tim’s grades were among the highest in his classes. He was simply asking for a level playing field. Some teachers even worried that other students might perceive accommodations as “cheating.”

I explained that these supports (extra time and notes) are standard in higher education. Yet, while the team easily approved Tim for CP courses, they refused him accommodations for AP courses. This was blatant discrimination. Why should a student’s diagnosis close the door to advanced coursework when he’s proven capable and committed?

Time and time again, I see capable students with disabilities steered into lower-level classes—not because of a lack of intellect, but because of systemic bias. Accommodations exist to remove barriers, not to lower expectations.

That experience reminded me how discrimination doesn’t always shout; sometimes, it whispers through lowered expectations. I saw a similar tension play out in my own family.

Time and time again, I see capable students with disabilities steered into lower-level classes—not because of a lack of intellect, but because of systemic bias. Accommodations exist to remove barriers, not to lower expectations.

Scenario Two: The Weight of Disclosure

Our middle son, Dylan, attended Landmark from third through 11th grade, a place that embraces disability as difference, not deficit. When he transitioned to an early college program for his senior year, we discussed that he might choose when—or if—to disclose his dyslexia.

True to form, Dylan began the year being open about it. Classmates asked, “Do you read backwards?” or “How can you be in an early college program if you have dyslexia?” Soon, the reactions grew exhausting for Dylan, an engineering student taking advanced math.

After several of these exchanges, Dylan decided to stop disclosing. As my grandmother used to say, “First impressions are everything.” When someone isn’t enlightened, your truth can fall flat or worse, be misunderstood. Disclosure should be a choice, never an obligation, and certainly not a burden.

That lesson—how systems and perceptions can unintentionally punish honesty—came full circle again this summer with our oldest son.

Scenario Three: Honesty Backfires

When he went to renew his driver’s license when a simple act of transparency set off a chain of unnecessary hurdles. He’s been driving safely since he was sixteen. Now a graduate student, he’s grown into acceptance of his disability—no longer resisting the label, but understanding it as part of who he is.

At the Department of Motor Vehicles, he did something simple yet profound: he checked the box indicating he had a disability. That one honest act triggered a month-long ordeal. His license was suspended until he produced a doctor’s note stating he was fit to drive, despite having no physical or cognitive condition that affects his ability behind the wheel.

It took three calls, including one to the Commissioner of Motor Vehicles, to resolve it. The message was clear: even honesty can be penalized when systems aren’t built to understand disability.

Disability Rights For All

Ten years later, what’s changed? We’ve made some progress in the disability community, with increased awareness, more vocabulary, and more inclusive statements. However, I am unsure that awareness is reaching the broader community and our systems. Disability discrimination still hides in everyday decisions—in who’s deemed “ready” for advanced classes, who feels safe to disclose, and who’s punished for honesty.

What gives me hope is the next generation—students like Tim, Dylan, and my oldest—who continue to challenge these barriers simply by showing up as their full selves. As educators, parents, and advocates, our work is to ensure that the doors people with disabilities push against finally stay open. I challenge folks to stop and as yourselves, “Am I facing discrimination?” Stop and ask further questions; do not follow the norm. Get comfortable questioning and asking others to think differently about eliminating disability discrimination.

About the Author

Angela Gowans P'23, CEO and Founder of EmpowerED Consulting Group, has supported families across the U.S. and internationally since 2013 through her full-service educational advocacy and consulting practice. A former staffer for then-Congressman Bernie Sanders, and then as a lobbyist for the American Federation of Teachers. Angela has served in advisory roles on several boards, including the New England Consortium on Deafblindness and Senator Sanders’s Disability Advisory Council.

As a parent of three children with disabilities, she brings a family-centered, collaborative approach to her work as an advocate, mediator, and family coach. Angela’s deep knowledge of education law and legislative systems allows her to guide families through evaluations, placements, mediation, and complex special education issues. She lives in Beverly, MA, with her husband, Robert.

Is Your Child Ready for Boarding School?

Wed, 19 Nov 2025 05:00:00 +0000

Five Signs It's Time to Trade the Commute for the Community

Imagine your evening: Dinner is done, the kitchen is clear, and the house is quiet. But wait—where are you? You’re sitting at the kitchen table, the last parent standing, locked in another late-night struggle over homework, time management, and the eternal question of where your student’s missing assignment went. This scene is a rite of passage for parents, but for families of struggling learners, it can feel like a daily marathon.

If you’re a long-distance family currently battling a brutal commute or if you find yourself constantly having to help your child with independent homework, it might be time to consider a change. Your child isn't just ready for high school; they might be ready for a life-changing experience called boarding school.

But how do you balance the question of independence with the hesitation of letting go?

Here are five key signs your learner is ready to thrive in a structured boarding school setting:

The Ready-for-Boarding Checklist

1. The Homework Wars Need to End

Your child wants to own their learning—they just need the tools. A great indicator is a student who is willing to learn and use new study skills but currently struggles with time management and organization. A boarding program with a structured residential curriculum explicitly builds these executive functioning skills, moving them from needing your constant help to mastering independent study during a structured study hall. No more homework arguments!

2. My Child Needs a Community, Not Just a Classroom

Your child has a good social foundation but needs a bigger stage. The right boarding school provides constant opportunities to navigate social situations, participate in community service, and take on small leadership roles—skills they'll need for post-secondary success.

3. Practicing the 'Adulting' Curriculum (and finally, the laundry)

Boarding school is a chance to practice being a confident adult. A structured program helps students build in new routines, teaching them essential life skills like doing their own laundry and keeping their space organized. These small victories of self-care build the confidence and self-awareness needed for bigger wins in the classroom.

4. Camp Confident

Did your child come home from summer camp a little bit taller, a lot more confident, and brimming with stories? If they thrived in a previous sleepaway camp experience or extended overnights, it’s a strong sign they’re prepared to be challenged, but not overwhelmed, in a structured, supportive environment designed just for them.

5. The Commute is Limiting Life

If an exhausting daily commute limits your child's ability to participate in after-school activities, sports, or clubs, boarding offers them back the most precious commodity: time. It allows them to fully engage in the life of the school.

Moving to a boarding school isn't about pushing a child out of the nest; it's about giving them a safe, supportive, and structured environment to practice flying. When you choose boarding, you're not sending them away—you're sending them forward.

Boarding School for Dyslexia

At Landmark High School, boarding students don't just live here, they have a curriculum designed to help them develop responsibility, executive function, and independence.

Learn More About Boarding at Landmark

Landmark360 Blog

Psychoeducational and Neuropsychological Evaluations Explained

Psychoeducational vs. Neuropsychological Evaluations Explained:

Understanding the Similarities, Differences, and When Each May Be Helpful

In Brief

The Psychoeducational Evaluation

What is it?

What does it measure?

How is it used?

The Neuropsychological Evaluation

What is it?

What does it measure?

How is it used?

Areas of Significant Overlap

When a Psychoeducational Evaluation May Be Most Appropriate

When a Neuropsychological Evaluation May Be Most Helpful

A Practical Framework for Families

Concluding Thoughts

About the Author

About Dr. Doty

About Dr. Willoughby

Social Development of Today’s Seniors

Teens Struggling With Basic Communication

Practice Makes Permanent

This is an important reminder that young people are remarkably resilient. When given the chance, they learn quickly.

Small Steps. Big Success.

About the Author

An Open Letter to the Dyslexic Youth of America

About the Author

“Timing Matters”: Landmark School at the intersection of research, instruction, and reflection.

Timing and Duration

Learning Trajectories

Effects of Disruptions

Best Timing Is Now

Retention

Long-term Outcomes

About the Author

The Relationship Between Social Pragmatic Communication and Executive Function

Helping Kids “Read the Room”: The Relationship Between Social Communication and Executive Function

The Hidden Link Between Executive Function and Social Skills

Situational Awareness: Reading the Room

Why Some Kids Struggle

Helping Kids Build Social and Executive Function Skills

The Big Picture

References & Resources

Author

Why Cursive Matters

Why Cursive Matters:A Powerful Tool for Students With Learning Differences

The Benefits of Cursive Writing for Students—Especially Those With Learning Differences

Increased Writing Efficiency

Reduced Letter Confusion

A Confidence Boost

Empowering Students With Dyslexia

Resource

About the Author

Beyond the Slurs: How Disability Bias Still Shows Up

Scenario One: Lowered Expectations

Time and time again, I see capable students with disabilities steered into lower-level classes—not because of a lack of intellect, but because of systemic bias. Accommodations exist to remove barriers, not to lower expectations.

Scenario Two: The Weight of Disclosure

Scenario Three: Honesty Backfires

Disability Rights For All

About the Author

Is Your Child Ready for Boarding School?

Five Signs It's Time to Trade the Commute for the Community

The Ready-for-Boarding Checklist

1. The Homework Wars Need to End

2. My Child Needs a Community, Not Just a Classroom

3. Practicing the 'Adulting' Curriculum (and finally, the laundry)

4. Camp Confident

5. The Commute is Limiting Life

Boarding School for Dyslexia

Helping Kids “Read the Room”:
The Relationship Between Social Communication and Executive Function

Why Cursive Matters:
A Powerful Tool for Students With Learning Differences